Business strategy in financila services Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Business strategy in financila services - Essay Example A host of modern pharmaceutical companies all started out as Rhine-based family dyestuff and chemical companies e.g. Hoffman-La Roche, Sandoz, Ciba-Geigy (the product of a merger between Ciba and Geigy), and Novartis1 etc. Most are still going strong today2. Over time many of these chemical companies moved into the production of pharmaceuticals and other synthetic chemicals and they gradually evolved into global players. There are certain factors like the introduction of the penicillin during the late 1940s, its success and relative success of many other innovative drugs which actually institutionalized the efforts of research and development (R&D) in the pharmaceutical industry. The industry expanded rapidly in the sixties, benefiting from new discoveries and a lax regulatory environment. During this period healthcare spending boomed as global economies prospered. The industry witnessed major developments in the seventies with the introduction of tighter regulatory controls, especially with the introduction of regulations governing the manufacture of 'generics'3. The new regulations revoked permanent patents and established fixed periods on patent protection for branded products, a result of which the market for 'branded generics'4 emerged. PESTLE Analysis PESTLE analysis is a useful tool for understanding the "big picture" of the environment, in which you are operating, and the opportunities and threats that lie within it. By understanding the environment in which you operate (external to your company or department), you can take advantage of the opportunities and minimize the threats (RAPIDBI). Specifically the PEST or PESTLE analysis is a useful tool for understanding risks associated with market growth or decline, and as such the position, potential and direction for a business or organization. Technological advancements, tighter regulatory-compliance overheads, rafts of patent expiries and volatile investor confidence have made the modern pharmaceutical industry an increasingly tough and competitive environment. An analysis of the structure of the pharmaceutical industry using the PEST (political, economic, social and technological) model (Susanne, 2004) is given below. Increasing Political Attention Over the years, the pharmaceutical industry has witnessed increased political attention due to the increased recognition of the economic importance of healthcare as a component of social welfare. Political interest has also been generated because of the increasing social and financial burden of healthcare. Examples are the UK's National Health Service debate and Medicare in the US. Increased Economic Value During the year 2003, there were many high value mergers and acquisitions which were witnessed by the global pharmaceutical industry. With a projected stock value growth rate of 10.5% (2003-2010) and Health Care growth rate of 12.5% (2003-2010), the audited value of the global pharmaceutical market is estimated to reach a huge 500 billion dollars by 2004. Only information technology has a higher expected growth rate of 12.6%. Majority of

Urban Outfitters Continuing Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Urban Outfitters Continuing Case Study - Essay Example However, small businesses are an asset to any country and really enhance the overall GDP. Limited funds are a challenge as they have a direct effect on the growth of the business because there is pressure to pay off debts and concentration on growth is low. Even once the initial investment is made, there might not be enough cash to carry on with the daily operations, and hence, capital is always the main concern. The location is of utmost importance especially in the case of the retailer. In the case study Urban Outfitters decided to focus their store openings near colleges so that the students seeking for funky designs and used clothes can easily purchase in close proximity. Location in terms of clusters and target market are factors to be considered. The proximity and unique distribution creates exclusivity and helps companies with their niche marketing tactics. Employing efficient human resource is vital for creating an impact on consumers. In the case study, Richard and Belair, h ad entrepreuniral skills and a genuine interest in running their business, therefore they did a good job. Q2) Define what a "niche" product is. Give at least three examples of niche products.   A) A niche product is the one made and marketed for a small but profitable market. It is made for a high potential market which is small in size but profitable to cater. The specific product features designed are aimed to satisfy a specific market (Advantages of Niche Marketing 2009). In order to tap this sort of a potential market, the gap in the market has to be identified. These can be customized items too for example a cake shop customizing cakes for every individual according to their choice. Occasions are always brightened with some delicacy and catering to a customized market can be profitable. Catering to the elite by exclusively creating something can also be called a niche product for example a Rolls Royce. Catering to a particular demographics, class and personality all create ni ches. A case in point can be websites that provide services for specific categories for example finding your perfect match online, relationships and dating. Such services fulfill the needs of thousands of people but are very limited in its service and not mass marketed. Q3) Explain why a niche company might have an advantage in a market. Would price necessarily be an advantage? Explain why or why not.   A) Customization and exclusivity creates the importance of a niche market. Besides these factors, satisfying the needs of specific demographics in itself is an advantage because the customer feels his/her specific wants are been catered too. In the case study, the stores were located near colleges and the college students were being targeted, therefore, the sale of used clothes was identified as the missing gap for college students that have an economical budget. Therefore, the niche market allows the company to exert out energy on reaching out to the right people. resources are no t wasted in mass marketing but are instead focused on serving the small segment of loyal customers. Price may not necessarily be an advantage as seen clearly in this case study. Richard and Belair identified the needs of college students and then further increased their product line in order to synchronize the unique feel and look of each store. Many businesses in the world that operate in niche markets do have an advantage over price such as Lexus that produces limited cars and earns

Banking Concept of Education Paulo Freire Essay

Banking Concept of Education Paulo Freire - Essay Example Freire demonstrates that the banking concept is considered by oppressors to be the most suitable method of imparting knowledge on learners. The banking concept is where knowledge is deposited the same as how money is deposited in a bank. Therefore the application of the banking system of education makes students to be treated as if they are empty vessels which need to be filled with knowledge (Paulo 319). The teacher is the subject in the banking method of education while the student is the subject. This shows a relationship between the teacher and the student where the teacher narrates knowledge with the student being expected to be the listening objects. Paul Freire is opposed to the banking education because it is makes education petrifying and lifeless due to the narration process through which students are expected to learn (Mejia 63). The narration which characterizes the banking education involves teachers filling information or content to students. In this method of education , students are disconnected and detached from reality because they may not find the narrated content to be significant. The students are thus made to memorize content without attaching any importance to it. On the other hand, the problem posing method of education involves both the teacher and the student in solving problems during learning. The teacher and the student therefore work together and hence both play equal roles in the process of knowledge acquisition without the student being the object into which information is filled. The student is enabled to engage in the learning process and thus making the problem posing method of education realistic because students are able to engage with the reality of the content being learned. Unlike the oppressive banking method of education, the problem posing approach enables learners to act as thinking beings

The Stone Age Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Stone Age - Essay Example During this time, people made their tools and weapons mainly with the help of stones when metal working had not taken place yet. Geographically primeval culture has spread to all continents except Antarctica. The Stone Age is divided into three eras, which differ from each other with own peculiarities and conditions. The Stone Age brought humans to a totally new stage of their development. When climate drastically changed and glaciers melted, nomadic people reached the territory between Israel and Iraq, which hills were full of verdurous trees and wild animals. The Middle East became very attractive to humans who found favorable conditions for living here. Ancient people discovered that grain could give a lot of harvest, so eventually they found a way to gather crop with the help of appropriate stone tools. According to the archaeobotanist, George Willcox (2003), it had been noticed that during three-week period of time one person could gather enough grains for being able to feed fou r people for the entire year (Stories from the Stone Age). In additional, ancient people realized the efficiency of grain that could be stored for a long period of time without decay in case it was kept in a dry place. Consequently, discovering a very profitable place full of potential food, people at last found a reason to stop their nomadic life and settle down. Moreover, their decision to stay on chosen territory was also influenced with the fact that all tools made of stones and intended for gathering harvest were quite heavy, therefore people’s inability and lack of desire to carry their burdens eventually managed to change their lives irrevocably. Settling down in the Middle East made ancient people to face several challenges, one of which was finding ways to produce food out of plants. Also humans managed to develop and widen variety of tools for hunting realizing how precarious this activity was. Hence, people started to use stones connected by cords for catching wild animals and double-bladed sickles for cutting grass. In addition, people discovered usage of grains and began to produce so-called ancestor of bread. Gathering harvest and sharing tools helped people to unite their strength in a way when priority moved from individual prosperity to community’s wellbeing. People of that era had a special ritual for burial. They put dead person into the hole, placed a big stone on a chest and laid some personal possessions and various offerings. As archeologists found out, with the lapse of time this funeral rite faced some changes, like later n people started to took the scalp of the dead person out of a hole and bring it back into the world. Stones which had been found on the mentioned territories contained some scratches, which nowadays archeologists interpret as a first attempt to represent numbers. This fact has a great importance in a formation of ancient culture. Despite the fact that ancient people at last found an ideal place to stay on, they again were forced to return to their former nomadic lifestyle later on. Hence, the climate change brought draught which in its turn caused a dreadful shortage of food. So this was another challenge which ancient people were forced to overcome. All population split for small groups and began searching for food. One part of people finally settled down in Jordan near the

The Poetry of T.S. Eliot Essay Example for Free

The Poetry of T.S. Eliot Essay The poetry of T.S. Eliot is of such greatness that it will be read and analyzed by future generations of students and critics as long as there is poetry. Eliot received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948 and his work spanned a period of time from 1910 until his death in 1965. The period 1914—1922 was very significant for Eliot for obvious as well as personal reasons and events. He was living in England and Europe was witnessing the end of the First World War and realizing the devastation caused. Personally he was having marital difficulties as well as emotional and psychological problems. (Eliot xv—xviii) His work from this period is very dark and obviously influenced by the â€Å"wasteland† of Europe as well as his marital and personal issues. The poems are compelling and in their unique way stand to illustrate the beauty that can be created in the dismal.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock† was first published in 1915. It opens with Italian verse from â€Å"Dante’s Inferno†, seemingly trying to set a tone of death and damnation. There are no bright spots or happiness in the poem; instead there is a sense of anxiety, uncertainty and sadness. He walks â€Å"streets that follow like a tedious argument of insidious intent to lead you to an overwhelming question† (9). The women seem out of reach, â€Å"in the room the women come and go talking of Michelangelo† (10). It is not a pleasant scene. Eliot appears to want to escape it, to be â€Å"a pair of ragged claws scuttling across the floors of silent seas† (11).   His language in Prufrock is full of allusions and very difficult to read and interpret, and it is almost as if he has sympathy for the reader. He shows his frustration at miscommunication in several lines, some repeated. â€Å"That is not what I meant at all. That is not it, at all† is followed by later by â€Å"it is impossible to say just what I mean† (12). Later this thought is inverted and repeated, â€Å"that is not it at all, that is not what I meant, at all† (13). Towards the end he becomes melancholy and thinks of his old age and death: â€Å"I grow old†¦I grow old†¦I have heard the mermaids singing, each to each. I do not think they will sing to me†¦we have lingered by the chambers of the sea by sea-girls wreathed with seaweed red and brown till human voices wake us and we drown† (13). The reader is left to wonder if Prufrock was drowning in a sea of human voices. This conflict and miscommunication is symbolic of both Eliot’s marital and personal difficulties. The poem is depressing and full of darkness, conflict and anxiety. It is only the beginning of his bleak viewpoint.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This theme of darkness and miscommunication continues to be reflected in his poetry. In â€Å"Morning at the Window†. Eliot is â€Å"aware of the damp souls of housemaid sprouting despondently at area gates†¦waves of fog toss up to me twisted faces†¦and tear from a passer-by with muddy skirts an aimless smile that hovers in the air and vanishes†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (24). He writes of his â€Å"Aunt Helen† not in reflection of her life, but upon her death, focusing on silence and the task of the undertaker: †¦the undertaker wiped his feet—he was aware this sort of thing had occurred before† (26). There is a gloominess that seems to be everywhere Eliot looks. His theme of miscommunication is in his very words, often bizarre and difficult to interpret. In â€Å"Mr. Apollinax† Mr. Apollinax â€Å"laughed like an irresponsible foetus ‘he is a charming man’—but after all what did he mean† (28).   Ã‚  If the words are difficult enough to understand, the final verse is all but impossible to comprehend. â€Å"I remember a slice of lemon, and a bitter macaroon† (29).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Through these unsettling works Eliot shows himself to be a master at portraying a side of the human condition no one really likes to see, yet invariably at sometime everyone does. Often he points out the contrary view as he does in â€Å"The Wasteland†. Springtime is a timeless topic for countless poets expressing the wonder and beauty of nature coming alive after a winter asleep. Not so for Eliot. â€Å"April is the cruelest month, breeding lilacs out of the dead land, mixing memory and desire, stirring dull roots with spring rain† (65). Not surprisingly he seems to prefer winter. â€Å"Winter kept us warm, covering earth with a forgetful snow, feeding a little life with dried tubers† (65). The theme of miscommunication continues to either cause or accompany the darkness. â€Å"Speak to me. Speak. Why do you never speak. Speak. What are you thinking of? What thinking? What? I never know what you are thinking† (69).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Eliot revisits his earlier theme of death as sea in the â€Å"Death by Water† section of â€Å"Wasteland†, advising Gentile or Jew â€Å"entering the whirlpool†Ã‚   to remember â€Å"Phlebas the Phoenician, a fortnight dead† (77). In the final section â€Å"What the Thunder Said† his depression seems to come to triumph. Eliot emphasizes â€Å"after the agony in stony places the shouting and the crying†¦he who was living is now dead, we who were living are now dying† (78). His landscape has been ruined: â€Å"falling towers Jerusalem Athens Alexandria Vienna London Unreal† (79). Despite his viewpoint and topics his work is beautiful as it moves the â€Å"unreal† of his imagination to our â€Å"reality† in such a unique and personal way; overall he has in fact communicated his reality in a masterful and compelling fashion. Eliot has proved that good things can arise from, if not be inspired by terrible situations. Works Cited   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Eliot, T.S. The Waste Land and Other Poems. New York: Barnes and Noble Classics, 2004.

Colonization of Mexico Essay Example for Free

Colonization of Mexico Essay The main purpose of this chapter is to explain the process of the Mexican northern states conquest. It addresses the events that occurred since the Mexican independence from Spain to the annexation of Texas to the United States and the loss of the Mexican more than half territory. 2. The key question(s) that the author is addressing is: What were the facts that led to the conquest of Mexican territories by the United States? What led to the legacy of hate? 3. The most important information in this article/chapter is: The chapter give us the causes of why the hate of legacy started and why it is still impacting. 4.The main inferences /conclusions in this article/chapter are: Mexico did not just lose over half of its territory, but also dignity. The wars brought losses that impacted the lives of Mexicans. Mexico didn’t just loss part of its land that would make it a major powe, but also its population, which day by day migrate in search of survival. 5.The key concept(s) we need to understand in this article is (are): * September 16, 1810 Mexico won independence from Spain (Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, Jose Maria Morelos, and Guadalupe Victoria). * Mexico was on bankrupt, with low stability. Wanted to form a nation state and create an overriding identity. * Texas and Mexican war interrupted the process of state formation. * 1800-1819 United States expanded through a series of purchases and aggressions dramatically, bordering Texas, New Mexico and some other Mexican territories. * United States started thinking Texas once belonged to them and started the process of annexation and invaded Mexico which led to a bankruptcy to the country. * The United States believed in the manifest destiny. They said God had chosen them to expand trough out the continent and spread democracy. * President Adams offered to by Texas for $1 million, Mexican officials refused the offer; United States started an aggressive diplomatic campaign. * On May 13, 1846 congress declared war. * February 2, 1848 the Mexican congress ratified the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo with Mexico accepting the Rio Grande as the Texas border and ceding almost half of its territory in return of 15 million. * By these concepts the author means: By those concepts the author addresses the facts that led to the Conquest of most of half of Mexican Territory. After Mexico gained independence from Spain, Mexico wanted to become a nation sate, but the process was interrupted when the Texas war begun. United States believed in manifest destiny and started expanding trough out its south. They tried to purchase Texas for 1 million but Mexico refused, war was declared and Mexico accepted lost Texas and some other territories on the northwest trough the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. 8.The main point(s) of view presented in this article is (are) The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo has not been clear and its interpreted in favor of special interests. It is said that it continues to be violated and that it has led to a legacy of hate that has impact our lives.

Black Children in the Child Protection System

Black Children in the Child Protection System INTRODUCTION In recent years, child abuse among black African families has attracted a lot of attention, academically and politically in British social work practice following the tragic death of Victoria Climbie (Laming, 2003) and Adam (Sale, 2005). Many of the research and literature on child abuse since the 1989 Children Act have not extensively discussed the aspect of poverty and child abuse. For many years social work interventions with black African families and children alleged of cases of child abuse have been a controversial topic. The difficulties black African families experience are not limited only to the foreign culture they find themselves in, but other issues may be significant, such as cultural differences in child-rearing, poverty, government policy and the intervention tools and processes. Research evidence suggests that black African children in the UK are over-represented in the child protection system for a variety of reasons such as physical and sexual abuse or neglect. Chand (1999) research on black African families and the child protection system highlights the over-representation of black families (58%) compared to white families (42%) on referrals involving physical injury. Another research shows that referrals involving inadequate supervision of children are disproportionately higher among black African families than white families. Some black African children are involved in the child protection system because their families are unable to provide adequate care for them. Bernard Gupta (2008) study also found that black African children and families are more likely than white families to be drawn into the child protection system on the basis of inherent differences in beliefs and child-rearing practices. The aim of this work is to suggest that black African children and families, due to a number of reasons, are more or less likely to be investigated of child abuse by social workers and other professions. The possible implications for black families being more or less likely to be investigated are either black African children will become over-represented in local authority care under the child protection system or they will not receive the appropriate intervention by social workers under the child welfare system and make children to be subjected to further abuse or neglect by their parents (Chand, 1999). According to Chand (1999) even when abuse among black families is identified, the service provision for the abused children are hampered by lack of resources and this cause delays in assessment and the provision of treatment where specialized services are required. The 1989 Children Act may classify many African children on the child protection register in the UK as children in need as their parents are more likely to live below the poverty line (DoH, 1989). Poverty is linked with reports of abuse and neglect and African families are proportionately more likely to live in poverty than many of the other communities in the UK (Bernard Gupta, 2008). According to Fontes (2006) people who are affected by child abuse are nestled by a variety of social and material domains that are highly interconnected and interactive. Therefore the poverty status of African families living in the UK is an important factor to be considered by social workers working with African families alleged of child abuse. Many African families have negative perception about social workers who work on cases of alleged child abuse, as they employ an assessment and intervention process that is based on euro-centric child protection procedures and as such view black families, their culture and lifestyle as inherently problematic and need correcting (Chand, 1999). This negative perception of social work practice by African families and children living in the UK breed grounds for mistrust and apprehension and make working with such families a major challenge for social workers. Bernard Gupta (2008) argued that black African children and their families are more likely than white families to be investigated of child abuse and therefore are over-represented on the child protection register under the category of poor parenting behaviours. However, black African families are also under-represented in receiving preventative supports such as housing needs, financial benefits that is required to address any family needs and to improve children welfare. Singh (2006) findings show that African families and their entrenched cultural and social perceptions of parenting behaviours are difficult to understand in the context of contemporary social work practice and therefore social workers may be quick to intervene in such families. Bernard Gupta (2008) also found in their research work that the majority of black African families who have migrated to the UK because of war, poverty, and tribal anarchies in their home countries, also have difficulty not only how to adapt to the western culture in which they find themselves but how they may be viewed by social workers involved in child care. Most social work professionals working with black African families do not appreciate the poverty background of such families and would feel justified to make judgements resulting into mistrust and disengagement from both parties. However, according to Bernard Gupta (2008) the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families places a requirement on social workers to consider families backgrounds and cultural perspectives when dealing with cases of child abuse. Korbin (2004) argues that social workers face difficulties in employing appropriate intervention in child abuse cases as the processes involved in chi ld abuse assessment may be complex and parental behaviours may not be the same in different cultures and socio-economic settings. In view of this perception, Bernard Gupta (2008) states that a focus on maltreatment or dysfunction within African families can risk stereotyping this ethnic minority as deficient, thus fostering pathological viewpoint of African family relationships'(p 478 ). This raises the question of what type of social work intervention is needed to be used by social workers working with black African families living in economic poverty so that vulnerable children are fully supported and protected, and not just drawing these children into the child protection system. This professional dilemma in social work practice presents a major challenge and therefore, calls for a new perspective in work ideologies and practices, the way information is disseminated on how the child protection system works, training on child-rearing differences in black African culture, social work values and enhancing collaboration with other professions. With a change in social work practice, social workers will develop the skills to distinguish between the styles of parenting inherent in African families which is not necessarily harmful to children and those parenting behaviours that are harmful. This point will be further discussed in chapter two. The dissertation will draw on social work theories, policies and practice, key models and literature search from electronic journals to web search on child abuse, social work intervention and child protection system. The main emphasis of this dissertation looks at the available literature on black African families involved in the child protection system, focusing on specific poverty-related parenting practices that give rise to issues of child abuse. The methodology for this work is mainly qualitative and the literature obtained from both primary and secondary sources. The dissertation examines various issues such as how social work professionals should perceive and manage child abuse among black African families living below the poverty-line, what interventions social workers need to employ that would support these families to provide adequate child-care for their children and the possible reasons why black African children and their families may be over-represented in the child pro tection systems. The first chapter examines the literature on black African children and the child protection system. Chapter two provides a discussion on the increased complexity of social work intervention in child abuse cases involving black African families living in poverty. It also analyse how poverty could complicate parenting behaviours that impact on child-rearing which, tends to draw black African children living in the UK into the child protection arena. Then chapter three draws on legislations and policies regulating social work practices in the UK. It also examines contemporary social work practice in child abuse cases among African families. Chapter four critically analyses the various methods of interventions available to social workers when working with black African families. Finally chapter five discusses the implications of social work intervention among African families living in poverty. CHAPTER ONE BLACK AFRICAN CHILDREN AND CHILD PROTECTION SYSTEMS The prevalence of Black children in the child protection system Many children are drawn into the child protection system for many different reasons. The majority of these children go through distressing and damaging experiences, which may include physical, emotional, sexual abuse and neglect. Some children living with poor families come under the child protection system as result of families parenting behaviours and practices, oppression, discriminations and cultural values. Considering the child protection system and black African families, Bernard Gupta (2006) have critically analysed the evidence on the disproportionate representation of black African families on the child protection register. Brophy et al (2003) study highlights the proportion of minority ethnic families and their children represented on the child protection register involve several allegations about parental behaviours and practices. Chand (1999) states that different child-rearing methods used in different cultures mean that as an outsider, understanding what is the norm a nd what is deviant is problematicand trying to distinguish the risks in one family from the another, social workers may fall back on moral judgements'(p.72). In contemporary social work practice many social workers are faced with difficulty situations when assessing and making decisions on child care issues among African children and their families who are living in poverty. It is paramount in view of available literature to say that when social workers acknowledge and understands these families financial backgrounds and their cultural identity through effective communications, it is possible they will come to terms with some of their parenting behaviours and practices. However, where families go over the boundaries of child-rearing to inflict physical and emotional harm on their children, which is evident in Victoria Climbie inquiry, it should be understood that such families have gone beyond what is acceptable not only within the western culture but in their own culture (Chand, 1999). Therefore, if social workers understand the causes of parental behavioural patterns of African families, they will be well-informed to determine whether a particular parenting behaviours should be considered within the protection process or to provide advice and support for such families under children in need (Chand, 1999). The challenges social work practitioners experience when using the assessment processes as detailed in the Climbie Inquiry (Laming, 2003) is crucial to the safety and protection of black children whose families have immigrated into the UK. Sometimes social workers may be stereotyped as racist and ethnocentric, as they do not acknowledge and address issues of poverty-related parental behaviours of African families in the assessment process of a child abuse case (Chand, 1999). Under the Governments Every Child Matters policy, social workers first priority is to ensure children live with their families if it is best to do so. In addition to this policy, it is the responsibility of the social services or local authorities to create the enabling environment for the provision of preventative services to families so that these families can provide appropriate care for their children. According to the Department for Education and Skills (2006b) statistical data a significant proportion of bl ack African children are on the child protection register. A number of studies tend to support the view that families of these children lives in poverty and struggle to raise their children to the standard set up by government legislation. Therefore it is difficult to say whether social services are meeting the agenda detailed in the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (Department of Health, 2000) which places on social workers the responsibility to consider families backgrounds and cultural values when dealing with child care issues. Thoburn et al.s (2005) review of the nature and outcomes of child welfare services for black children concluded that African children are almost twice as likely to be looked after than the white majority children in the population as a whole, which then suggest, that some of these children will be accommodated under section 20 of the 1989 Children Act, by virtue of being raised by families living in poverty. However, there are a number of contributory factors which could be perceived as important in understanding the involvement of black African families with social work agencies and the resultant over-representation of their children in the child protection system. Child abuse and neglects may be linked to poor parental practices and poverty by families who are supposed to be responsible for looking after these children. Therefore the poverty experienced by many African families and children may be resolved through a more preventative welfare services rather than child protection se rvices. Platt (2006) study on the refocusing initiative on social work practices from the child protection orientation to a child welfare orientation underpins government legislation, policies and procedures and management efforts to redirect social work interventions more towards welfare services. Also through child welfare practices social workers may appreciate the difficulties that families experience and may endeavour to meet children and their family financial and social needs through a range of social and preventative services. The government legislations and policies The most relevant legislation in the UK that aims to protect children from abuse and harm is the Children Act (1989), of which Section 47 expects local authorities to make enquiries into cases where they have reasonable cause to suspect that a child is suffering or likely to suffer significant harm and Section 17 makes provision for a child to be assessed with a view to the provision of services to children in need (Platt, 2006). Therefore there are two definitive objectives of the Children Act (1989), the child protection focus and the child welfare focus. Many black African children referred to social services under the child protection system may not necessarily be suffering from any harm or neglect if the situation is considered in the context of parenting behaviours and practices (Chand, 1999). According to Platt (2006), the Audit Commission recommendation to shift from the popular investigational work use by social workers to a family support services, was a result of many fail ings identified by many other government bodies. This wind of change for social work practice was accepted by the Department of Health, after examining the publication, Child Protection: Messages from Research (Department of Health, 1995). Chand (1999) argues that the child protection system tends to draw too many cases inappropriately onto the child protection register, of which many may be classified as border-line cases, that could have being managed under the children welfare services. Whilst other research findings support the view that the child protection system seems to have achieved as much as could be expected in terms of preventing further abuse of vulnerable children. Hayes and Spratt (2008) argue that such achievement is not in ways most readily understood by those who legislate, set policy and measure performance. Bernard Gupta (2008) highlights in their study that, in situations in which there is a risk of abuse or neglect of African children, as with other minority ethnic children, the literature suggests that fear of difference, combined with racist stereotypes, may both exacerbate defensive practice, leading to avoidance that can leave children unprotected (p486). The Department of Health (1995) emphasises that social work professionals need to rely on various policies and measures since child abuse is not an absolute concept and most family behaviours have to be seen in context before decisions of abuse are made (Chand 1999, p. 70). Although child protection social workers in the UK are trained to follow the official guidance as set out in the Department of Health (1988) Protecting Children: A guide for Social Workers undertaking a Comprehensive Assessment, this guidance in the context of black African children and their families, fall short in addressing their basic needs (Chand, 1999). Against this background, the quality of social work assessment and, hence intervention process used by social workers may stereotype black African families, their parenting behaviours and practice and culture as inherent indicators of child abuse and need correcting (Chand, 1999). The fundamental dilemma facing contemporary social work practice is the manner and extent social workers should engage in social welfare services rather than in investigational procedures and processes, so as to redirect its efforts primarily to the poor and needy in society (Karger Hernandez, 2004). From the 1990s there have been proactive and sustai ned efforts on behalf of the UK government to develop and promote legislation and policies, which challenge the influence of a child protection culture on management and social work practice, which notably are perceived as distorting the balance of service provision to children and families (Spratt Callan, 2004). Pringle (1998) argued that the family support strategies may focus on the generalization of responses compared with child protection procedures that target actual nature of the alleged abuse. Cleaver Walker (2004) argued in their research, that the implementation of this switch from child protection to child welfare services by social work agencies can have negative and difficult impact on the government Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families. According to Hayes Spratt (2008) the government has seen a remarkable reduction in the number of children drawn into the child protection system, which commends local authorities effort to help achieve performance targets. Spratt Callan (2004) criticized the reductions in number of children on the child protection register, as being achieved largely due to modern governance and measures to promote compliance with performance targets. However, following Baby P report childrens services watchdog, Ofsted, reported t hat a review of 173 serious cases in April 2009, found that social workers and other agencies, failed to act swiftly to put children suffering from physical and neglect abuse onto the child protection register (www.ofstednews.ofsted.gov.uk/article). Ofsted also identified certain poor social work practices such as the failure of social services workers to identify and report signs of abuse, poor recording and communication, and limited knowledge and application of basic policies and procedures (www.ofstednews.ofsted.gov.uk/article).This report has since seen an increase in the number of children drawn into the child protection system. According to Chand (1999), the UK government reiterated that the primary and official duties of local authorities within the context of the 1989 Children Act is to focus more on safeguarding children through the provision of advice and support services under children in need. In Spratt Callan (2004) study the Department of Health estimates four million children living in England are vulnerable to harm or neglect, due to their families living far below the poverty line, yet only 300-400,000 of these children are known to social services at any given time. Thoburn et al (2000) study on families, whose children were at risk of suffering emotional abuse and neglect, shows that 98% of the children brought to the attention of child protection system, their families live in poverty. Parton (1997) argued that due to the correlation between poverty and the need for provision of public services, only the very small number of vulnerable children who are designated as children in need receive s ervices under the welfare service. Spratt Callan (2004) suggest that a more effective way social work can help such vulnerable children, particularly black African children, who may be over-represented on the child protection register, is the government increasing resources to local authorities, increasing the number of social workers and reshaping the social services system. Therefore, with regard to the governments provision of resources, legislation and policies, the model or intervention approach social workers may employ when working with black African families living in extreme poverty, will determine whether a family receives a child protection service or a child welfare service. CHAPTER TWO POVERTY AND BLACK AFRICAN FAMILIES Poverty and Child Protection The area of poverty and child protection with black African families has been the source of controversy in British social work research for many decades. Many researchers find a correlation between economic deprivation such as poverty and social exclusion and parenting behaviour and practice, child-rearing capabilities and skills which are a prerequisite for proper child development anywhere in the world. Moreover, according to Jordan (2001) poverty is correlated with reports of abuse and neglect. For instance, the National Centre for Children in Poverty found in 1990 that the incidence of child abuse and neglect, as well as the severity of the maltreatment reported, is much greater for children from low-income families than for others (Jordan, 2001 p.1). As a large number of Africans in the UK live below the poverty line, it may be reckoned that most black African children on the child protection register live below the poverty line. Brophy et al (2003) argue that many families brought to the attention of the child protection system lives in extreme poverty and may experience social exclusion. Black African children living in the UK may be over-represented in the child protection system for reasons such as physical abuse or neglect; therefore it is understandable to say that there is a correlation between abuse and parenting behaviours and practices. The question is why African families and their children living in poverty, who are alleged of child abuse, are over-represented in the child protection system? Sossou Yogtiba (2008) noted in their study that a child is the most valuable asset of any traditional African family, as children symbolise status, respect and completeness of the nuclear family, if that is the case, then it is ironical to see African families and their children to be over-represented in the child protection system. Many black African families in the UK still lives below the poverty-line though they undertake different types of unskilled or skilled jobs, as they support large families in their countries of origin (Anane-Agyei, 2002). It may be reckon that poverty is linked with other social disadvantages such as poor education, limited employment opportunities, and poor health and may have devastating consequences for childrens development and life chances. Research shows that many African families and their children may have insecure immigration status and their existing financial predicaments only help to complicate their parenting behaviours and practices. Penrose (2002) study shows that African families seeking asylum are often forced to live at level of poverty that is just unacceptable, and this puts financial constraint on them to provide adequate childcare for their children. Unemployment levels are known to be very high among African families, and they are also subject of stigmatization and prejudice by the larger community that are suppose to accept them. According to Bernard Gupta (2008) immigration and asylum status determines income, employment opportunities and access to support services for many African people in the UK and these issues of entitlement to services only complicate their cases. Some African families living in the UK may be without jobs and may not also be entitled to social and economic benefit and therefore may find it difficult to care for their children. Children growing up with parents living in poverty may be deprived of proper childhood development ( Montith Eithne, 2005). African families living in poverty and failing to provide good care for their children may be perceived by social work professionals as failing in their parental responsibilities (Chand, 1999). For this reason, social workers may intervene in such families and often than not they are drawn into the child protection system. Amin Oppenheim (2002) argue that the unfamiliar cultural expectation of black African families living in the UK somehow contribute to the high level of poverty they experience. Research shows that many African families suffer from institutional oppression including housing, employment, education and health which not only means that they are more likely to experience poverty and deprivation, but also more susceptible to social work interventions in child abuse or maltreatment allegations. Corby (1993) noted that it may be expected that black African children are over-represented in child abuse cases because their families are more open to surveillance as they show high levels of poverty that complicate their parenting behaviours (Chand, 1999 p73). In a broader perspective, Pearce Bozalek (2004) emphasise that the child protection system that exist in Britain will be unfamiliar to many African families, especially those more recently arrived, as similar state systems do not exist in most African countries, particularly where socio-economic factors, political instability and violence overshadow intra-familial child maltreatment and effective intervention into child abuse and neglect (Bernard Gupta, 2006 p481). Brophy et al (2003) study supports the above assertion that African families experience discrimination and insecurity in child abuse cases, as the tools for assessing abuse are often euro-centric bias and prejudice the families. Chand (1999) study expresses the awareness that black African families are disadvantaged through oppression in all areas of society and this should not reflect in social work practice. Gibbon et al (2003) findings show that the child protection system was picking up more alleged child abuse cases inappropriately and putting more families and children on the child protection register than children who are subject to social welfare procedures. Therefore the over-representation of African families on the child protection register somehow, undermines the government aim of keeping children with families and reducing the number of children that are drawn onto the child protection register. The Department of Health (1995) document on child protection identified some pertinent shortcomings with the child protection system, as it seems to encourage unnecessary child protection interventions in border-line child abuse cases. Bernard Gupta (2008) in their study of black African children and the child protection system suggest that there are a series of interactions between environmental factors such as poverty, immigration status and social exclusion that affect the life cha nces of many African children and the capacity of their parents to provide adequate care. Dowling (1999) realise that social work practice in the UK focus less on poverty-alleviating strategies but throw more resources behind safeguarding and protecting vulnerable children from abuse or maltreatment. Social workers need to understand the context in which abuse occurs, irrespective of race and culture, to develop an assessment and intervention process that is fairer for black families as they are more likely to suffer racism and oppression. In view of the above argument, it is pertinent that social workers know when to employ preventative measures to support black African families who have financial needs and when to take such families through the child protection system in the quest for safeguarding children. All these factors together create complex needs for many African children living in the UK, and, in many circumstances increase their vulnerabilities which draw them into the child protection arena. Bernard Gupta (2008) argued that only by developing effective relationships with African families can social work professionals can begin to understand their parenting behaviours and practices. Poverty and Child Welfare Services Current literature shows that poverty experience by most black African families living in the UK could be alleviated by social work services that offer a pragmatic welfare services rather than drawing these families and children into the child protection system. Brophy et al (2003) study suggests that immigration and asylum issues, combined with poverty, are likely to be some of the reasons for the increased complexity for social work professionals assessing and intervening child abuse cases involving black African children. The Department of Health challenges social workers with the responsibility to work with Section 17 of the Children Act 1995, so as to provide adequate social support for children in need via the child welfare services (Platt, 2006). However, social work agencies have not fully achieved the government agenda of alleviating poverty experience by many families and children due to inadequate resources at all levels of social work practice. The Department of Health have indicated that most families, struggle to bring up their children in conditions of material and emotional adversity (DoH, 2001). For instance black African families experiencing poverty may fail in their responsibility to provide proper care for their children as they spent almost all their time working to make ends meet. Such children hardly experience family treats such as going on a family holiday trip, having birthday parties and they are deprived of having basic playing toys and games that help children to learn and grow into adulthood. The lack of affordable basic needs for children of poor families complicated with other social adversities may contribute to poor children developing aggressive behaviours, low self-esteem, picking up awkward attitudes, and may to suffer from social deprivation. Fontes (2005) realises that many traditional immigrant families, where black Africans are part of, may use an authoritative style of parenting, demanding tot al obedience and respect from their children. Although these parental practices may not necessarily constitute child abuse, it may clash with the child-rearing norms, and thus seems to bring African children and families to the attention of the child protection system (Fontes, 2005). When social workers start acknowledging borderline child abuse cases and understand the difficulties families living in poverty experience in raising their children, they would be able to strike a good balance between when to employ a child protection intervention and a child welfare intervention (Spratt Callan, 2004). It is evident that children living in poverty may benefit from the child welfare services as stipulated in section 17 of the 1989 Children Act, as it aims at alleviating poverty in families